Category Archives: Native American customs

Native Americans had created a rich cultural history that was usually disregarded, disdained, and rejected by the larger Anglo-centered population. Native peoples had their own languages, medical methods, religions, rituals and ceremonies, and world outlooks. When the federal government changed its policy from overt warfare, it did not stop trying to destroy Native Americans. The government pursued a policy called “assimilation” which tried to erase all Native American heritage and culture. Fortunately, Native peoples proved themselves stronger than these policies and held on to many of the cultural aspects the government tried to erase.

A Working Society

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Navajo Woman at Work on Blanket, (between 1890-1920), courtesy Library of Congress

Navajo Woman at Work on Blanket, (between 1890-1920), courtesy Library of Congress

Like most other societies, Native Americans usually incorporated well-defined gender roles within their various groups. Men hunted, fought in battle, negotiated treaties and agreements, and made decisions about moving.  Men were chiefs, medicine men, and priests, though women could also take on these roles at times.

Women raised children, farmed if the society were agricultural, tanned skins and preserved food. Though their home-making roles were similar to white women’s, Native American women typically had more power. In Cherokee society, women owned land. Plains Indians traced their lineage through their mothers. Iroquois women controlled their families and could initiate divorce, and Blackfoot women owned the tipi in which their families lived. One important difference between Native American and white societies was the respect women received for their contribution to the home.

Returning War Party, courtesy Library of Congress

Returning War Party, courtesy Library of Congress

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Home Sweet Home

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Mud Lodge (Winter Home) courtesy Missoury Valley Special Collections, Kansas City Public Library

Mud Lodge (Winter Home) courtesy Missoury Valley Special Collections, Kansas City Public Library

Though teepees often represent Native Americans’ homes, they are merely a stereotype. Native American housing actually reflected the land and climate in which various peoples lived, their lifestyles, and the building material available. Earthen lodges (hogans, sod houses) were advantageous in harsh climates because the earth would protect families from severe weather. They were also a good choice in areas without thick trees.

Some tribes established camps that could be quickly dismantled and moved; they relied on structures like teepees and wickiups. Nations that settled in one spot, however, could build sturdier, more permanent structures. The Pueblo Indians in the desert southwest took advantage of easily procured mud and straw to build thick adobe complexes that were meant to last for years.

Sac and Fox Bark House, circa 1885, Missouri Valley Special Collections, Kansas City Public Library

Sac and Fox Bark House, circa 1885, Missouri Valley Special Collections, Kansas City Public Library

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Independent Skills

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Sioux Indians Hitting a Dime at 100 Yards, July 4, 1891, courtesy Library of Congress

Sioux Indians Hitting a Dime at 100 Yards, July 4, 1891, courtesy Library of Congress

Relationships between whites and Native Americans were not always antagonistic. Many settlers in the West had a healthy respect for Native Americans’  herbal knowledge (see 6/13/10 post) as well as their skills in hunting, tracking, riding, and shooting.

Americans had a fascination with these aspects of Native American culture, which were exploited in various “western” entertainments. Many times, however, groups of men simply indulged in games of skill or contests.

Apache Men Playing A Hoop and Pole Game Called Chees (1883-1888?) courtesy Library of Congress

Apache Men Playing A Hoop and Pole Game Called Chees (1883-1888?) courtesy Library of Congress

Canoe Tug of War, Tulalip Bay, circa 1912, courtesy Library of Congress

Canoe Tug of War, Tulalip Bay, circa 1912, courtesy Library of Congress

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Other Healing Rituals

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Blackfeet Sweat Lodge in Montana circa 1900, courtesy Library of Congress

Blackfeet Sweat Lodge in Montana circa 1900, courtesy Library of Congress

Many Native Americans believed that illness came from evil spirits, so their rituals emphasized that aspect of healing.

The Shoshones believed that a ghost entering a person’s body caused sickness, and used incantations, prayer, drums, medicine whistles, and sweat lodges to prepare a patient to have the ghost extracted. Continue reading →

A Healing Touch

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Wako, a Healer, 1894, courtesy Library of Congress

Wako, a Healer, 1894, courtesy Library of Congress

Many early European and U.S. physicians realized that it was their presence, rather than their ineffective treatments, that brought comfort to patients. Psychologists today also recognize the power of the mind, and know that expectations of a cure can have a positive effect. Continue reading →

The Healing Arts

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Native Americans, of course, had recognized and treated various illnesses for many centuries. They relied heavily on herbal knowledge. Herbalists, or herb doctors, received their knowledge about medicinal plants from dreams or visions.

Many healers had a tradition of walking past seven of the desired plants before picking one, so that enough was left for seven generations. They often left offerings in the holes they dug to remove plants, and expressed gratitude to them. Herb doctors tended to specialize in certain illnesses, since their dreams or visions did not generally encompass a wide range of sickness.

Observant healers discovered valuable herbs by trailing sick animals to see what they ate to help themselves. They particularly liked to follow bears, a symbol of healing as well as strength, bravery, and leadership. Herbalists typically  studied the effects of the herbs they saw used by animals and experimented with dosages.

Here are how a few herbs were used:

Crane’s bill to stop bleeding.

Golden seal as a tonic.

Horse radish as a diuretic.

Sourwood for indigestion and dyspepsia.

These four examples are for information only and should not be considered safe and effective for actual use. They are taken from The Cherokee Physician, or Indian Guide to Health as Given by Richard Foreman, a Cherokee Physician printed in 1849.

Flathead (Salish) Medicine Man identified as Dead-dog, courtesy Library of Congress

Flathead (Salish) Medicine Man identified as Dead-dog, courtesy Library of Congress

Hopi Medicine Man

Hopi Medicine Man

Medicine and Herb Doctor's Sign and Tent, Maricopa County, Arizona (about 1940) courtesy Library of Congress

Medicine and Herb Doctor's Sign and Tent, Maricopa County, Arizona (about 1940) courtesy Library of Congress

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Where The Wild Things Are

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Native Americans depended on herbs for healing, cleansing, and spiritual well-being. Traditionally, there are four sacred herbs: cedar, sage, tobacco, and sweet grass. Only persons well-versed in their sacred properties should attempt to use them, especially to make teas; these can be dangerous if not composed and used properly.

Cedar: Used in sacred ceremonies and smudging, and as a tea for flushing out the system.

Sage: Used for smudging, as a tea to flush out impurities, and in sacred ceremonies. It especially clears out emotional energy.

Tobacco: Used for sending up prayers, and to communicate with spirit.

Sweet grass: Used for smudging, blessing, and purification.

Smudging is a simple way to cleanse a space by using a smoldering herb to drive out bad spirits or feelings, or to get rid of negative energy. Smoke from the smoldering herb carries the negative energy or spirit away with it. Traditionally it begins in the east of the space and travels clockwise.

Medicine Pipe, Edward S. Curtis photographs, courtesy Library of Congress

Medicine Pipe, Edward S. Curtis photographs, courtesy Library of Congress

White Sage Smudge Stick

White Sage Smudge Stick

White Sage

White Sage

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The Insane Cherokee

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Map of Cherokee Nation, circa 1903

Map of Cherokee Nation, circa 1903

The Cherokee Nation actually established an asylum for insane Indians before the U.S. government did. The Cherokee National Council selected a site for the Cherokee  Home for the Insane, Deaf, Dumb, and Blind six miles south of Tahlequah in Indian Territory (now Oklahoma) in 1873. The asylum was governed by a board of trustees composed of the principal chief, assistant principal chief, the national treasurer, and three trustees appointed by the principal chief, with the consent of the Cherokee Senate.

Construction began in 1874 and on December 5, 1876, John A. Foreman was elected steward of the asylum at a salary of $400/year. The asylum opened March 1, 1877, and by October had accepted 14 males and 8 females. Foreman made a telling request in his first report: “I would hereby have to suggest that a change be made in the manner of receiving inmates into the asylum, and that such lines be drawn, as will prevent the Asylum from being made into a hospital.”

The Canton Asylum for Insane Indians never drew such a line, and quickly became a dumping ground for many inconvenient Indians who were not necessarily insane.

Cherokee National Female Seminary (1851-1887) Tahlequah

Cherokee National Female Seminary (1851-1887) Tahlequah

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Kill the Indian, Save the Man

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“A great general has said that the only good Indian is a dead one[….]In a sense, I agree with the sentiment, but only in this: that all the Indian there is in the race should be dead. Kill the Indian in him, and save the man.” –from a paper read by Carlisle Indian School founder, Captain Richard H. Pratt, at an 1892 convention.

Pratt’s words sound terrible to us today, but in his own time, his theory that Indians could be assimilated into American culture–rather than massacred out of it–was more humane than many of his contemporaries’ ideologies.

Pratt was an Army officer in the 10th Calvary,who commanded a unit of African American “Buffalo Soldiers” and Indian scouts  in Indian Territory after the Civil War. In 1875 he escorted 72 Indian warriors suspected of murdering white settlers to Ft. Marion in Florida. Once there, he took off his prisoners’ shackles, put them in uniforms, and drilled them like soldiers. Curious locals offered to teach them English. Pratt agreed, feeling that he was “civilizing” his charges. Eventually the Indians’ military guards were dismissed and trusted prisoners were allowed to act as guards, instead.

Pratt’s accomplishments drew positive attention and he gained permission from the Secretary of the Interior to establish a school that would take Indian children far away from their homes and immerse them in American culture. He got permission to use the Carlisle Barracks at a deserted military base to begin his experiment in civilizing the Indian nations through their children.

Richard H. Pratt

Richard H. Pratt

Richard Pratt With Prisoners, Ft.Marion, 1875

Richard Pratt With Prisoners, Ft.Marion, 1875

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Other Indian Prisons

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Indian School at Pine Ridge, courtesy Library of Congress

Indian School at Pine Ridge, courtesy Library of Congress

Commitment to an insane asylum would be a horrific experience for any Indian, but fortunately that happened to only a few within the population as a whole. What happened far more often, and affected more people, was the BIA’s invasion into Indian family life. Continue reading →