Category Archives: Canton Asylum for Insane Indians

Canton Asylum for Insane Indians in South Dakota was also known as Hiawatha. It opened in December 1902 and closed in 1934 after charges of neglect and abuse were validated. Dr. Harry Reid Hummer and Oscar Sherman Gifford were its only two superintendents. Its only patients were Native Americans, typically called Indians. It was the only federal insane asylum created solely for an ethnic group and served only Indians.

The Next Push Westward

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Pioneers near Gates, Custer County, NE, 1886, courtesy Library of Congress

Pioneers near Gates, Custer County, NE, 1886, courtesy Library of Congress

Efforts by the government to distribute land at a price wasn’t as successful as it had hoped. (See last post) However, the government’s efforts to let people settle land and then pay for it were opposed by people in the East, who thought a huge number of workers would leave. Southerners were afraid that a large number of people in western territories would lead to the creation of free states , since they assumed most small farmers would oppose slavery.

After the South seceded, the government passed the Homestead Act in 1862. The law allowed a homesteader to file an application for a 160-acre plot of surveyed land, farm and improve it for five years, and then file for a deed of ownership. There were certain requirements within this framework that unscrupulous people tried to make a profit from (like whether the 12 X 14 house they had to build could be in inches, since the law didn’t specify).

What kept fraud down was the fact that free or not, land in the western territories was hard to conquer. My next post will describe some of the difficulties settlers faced.

Homesteaders at Strool, SD, 1909, courtesy Library of Congress

Homesteaders at Strool, SD, 1909, courtesy Library of Congress

Homesteaders in Custer County, NE, 1887, courtesy Library of Congress

Homesteaders in Custer County, NE, 1887, courtesy Library of Congress

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Settling the Old West

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Wagon Train Between Echo Head & Hanging Rock, 1867, courtesy Library of Congress

Wagon Train Between Echo Head & Hanging Rock, 1867, courtesy Library of Congress

Many popular myths and conceptions surround the settling of America’s Old West. The truth is that it was a long, difficult process–both to distribute land and to settle it. The federal government began to distribute land almost since the country was founded, but it wasn’t especially easy. At first, land was measured against landmarks. Boundaries could be a little fuzzy with this method, and the government eventually began to measure against astronomical points.

The government didn’t want to just give away land–they wanted to add to the new country’s treasury. Prior to 1800, the government sold 640-acre parcels of land for $1 an acre. Buyers had to purchase the whole plot, and $640 was a lot of money. After 1800, the purchase requirement was dropped to 320 acres–which was a little bit easier for settlers to clear and plant–and purchasers were allowed to pay in installments. The new price was $1.25 an acre, and was still steep for most would-be farmers.

After 1852, the government priced land based more on its  perceived value. Land that had been available and unsold for 30 years, for instance, was re-priced at 12.5 cents an acre. To 21st-century landowners, that price seems unbelievably cheap. However, clearing land without powerful machines was difficult and backbreaking, and it was hard for families to leave their communities and social networks to strike out on their own.

The government had to get creative to really get settlers willing to push westward, and my next posts will show the settlement process.

O.H. Gilman & Co. General Store, 1890, courtesy Library of Congress

O.H. Gilman & Co. General Store, 1890, courtesy Library of Congress

Sod House, SD, 1898, courtesy Library of Congress

Sod House, SD, 1898, courtesy Library of Congress

 

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Dr. W.W. Godding

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Dr. W. W. Godding, courtesy Library of Congress

Dr. W. W. Godding, courtesy Library of Congress

Dr. William Whitney Godding was the second superintendent of St. Elizabeths, still called the Government Hospital for the Insane in 1877 when he took over from Dr. Nichols. The asylum had 700 patients at the time, far more than originally planned on. Godding accommodated this large number of patients by building 18 cottages for them, where chronically ill patients could live in more homelike settings.

Godding wrote nearly two dozen articles about mental illness, and served as president of the Association of Medical Superintendents of American Institutions for the Insane (AMSAII) from 1889- 1890.

In 1897, the Department of the Interior asked Godding his opinion about building a government hospital for insane Indians. Godding said that since he had only seven Indian patients at his own hospital, he didn’t think there was any need for a separate institution for them. Though he knew there might be a number of mild cases elsewhere, he couldn’t see expending money for a separate hospital and the upkeep for it, when the entire cost for taking care of the insane Indians at the Government Hospital only totaled $2,267.00.

Senator Pettigrew from South Dakota managed to push through the Canton Asylum for Insane Indians, though, at an initial cost of $45,000.

First Pathology Lab in a Mental Hospital, St. Elizabeths, 1884, courtesy National Institutes of Health

First Pathology Lab in a Mental Hospital, St. Elizabeths, 1884, courtesy National Institutes of Health

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St. Elizabeths Superintendents

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Grand Review of the Union Army, Washington DC, courtesy Library of Congress

Grand Review of the Union Army, Washington DC, courtesy Library of Congress

Reformer Dorothea Dix was instrumental in founding St. Elizabeths in Washington DC, as a place for “enlightened curative treatment of the insane of the Army, Navy, and District of Columbia.” She recommended Charles H. Nichols for the position of superintendent. President Millard Fillmore appointed him to that position in 1852.

The hospital was constructed during Nichols’ tenure as superintendent. When the Civil War broke out, Congress authorized the unfinished east wing as a temporary hospital for Union soldiers, and the 60-bed West Lodge was used for sailors in the Potomac and Chesapeake Fleets. General Joseph Hooker was a patient at St. Elizabeths after the battle of Antietam, but was cared for in Dr. Nichols’ quarters.

Dr. Nichols and other male staff rode out to battlefields around the DC area, to treat wounded soldiers. Recuperating patients filled in for them when possible. Not all patients survived, and both Union and Confederate soldiers are buried on the grounds of St. Elizabeths.

Dr. Nichols remained as St. Elizabeths’ superintendent until 1877.

General Joe Hooker, Matthew Brady photo

General Joe Hooker, Matthew Brady photo

Civil War Ambulance Train

Civil War Ambulance Train

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The Bursum Bill

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Holm. O. Bursum, courtesy Holm O. Bursum Papers, Center for Southwest Research, University Libraries, University of New Mexico

Holm. O. Bursum, courtesy Holm O. Bursum Papers, Center for Southwest Research, University Libraries, University of New Mexico

Native Americans faced significant challenges at the beginning of the 20th century. White men still wanted their land, and were willing to go to court to take it. In 1921, Secretary of the Interior, Albert Fall, asked New Mexico senator Holm O. Bursum, to draft a bill to settle a land dispute between Pueblos and whites who had been squatting on their land.

The Bursum Bill that the senator devised, allowed non-Indians to retain any land they had squatted on before 1902. It further gave the state court the right to settle any future land disputes. Since state courts were in the hands of whites who were generally adversarial to Indian rights, unscrupulous non-Indians would have promptly brought valuable land into dispute.

A group of artists and writers heard about the bill and alerted the Pueblos to it–they hadn’t even been notified that Congress was working on a land bill. Amid a lot of public attention drummed up by their supporters, Pueblos leaders testified before Congress on their own behalf. The bill was defeated.

Indian Children, Mescalero Reservation, N.M., circa 1936, courtesty Library of Congress

Indian Children, Mescalero Reservation, N.M., circa 1936, courtesty Library of Congress

Hopi Pueblo girls Weaving Baskets, 1906, courtesy Library of Congress

Hopi Pueblo girls Weaving Baskets, 1906, courtesy Library of Congress

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What a Day

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Canton Asylum

Canton Asylum

Life in most insane asylums was highly regimented, and the Canton Asylum for Insane Indians was no exception.

During the day, patients had a number of chores: They performed labor in the gardens, cleaned their rooms, helped in the kitchen or dining room, or assisted in the general maintenance of the asylum. For leisure, those who were able walked outside, played ball, fished, or even went into town if an attendant could go with them. Since attendants were also very busy, outdoor activities and town visits were not as prevalent  as reports made it sound–many patients spent most of their time indoors, doing nothing.

The asylum eventually got a moving picture machine that played (preferably) 7-reel comedies in the dining room once a week. Dr. Hummer also purchased playground equipment, such as swings and a see-saw, which were very popular; the swing set is visible in most pictures of Canton Asylum. On Sundays, those who desired sang hymns and recited the Lord’s Prayer–again, in the dining room–if there were no visiting clergy to give a more formal service.

Canton Main Street

Canton Main Street

Staff at Athens Lunatic Asylum

Staff at Athens Lunatic Asylum

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Defective People

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Sir Francis Galton

Sir Francis Galton

Around the turn of the 20th century, the United States was heavily involved in a new science called eugenics, a word coined in 1883 by Charles Darwin’s cousin, Sir Francis Galton. Galton thought the human race could be improved by better breeding practices, which were considered positive eugenics. Preventing the reproduction of undesirables was termed negative eugenics.

In the United States, many people agreed with the idea behind eugenics. Biologist Charles Davenport was director of the Cold Springs Harbor Laboratory in New York, where he founded the Eugenics Record Office. This office kept pedigree records on thousands of families in the U.S. Money for the laboratory came from the Rockefeller Foundation and other philanthropic institutes. Eugenics enthusiasts formed organizations like the American Eugenics Society, the American Breeders Association, and the Race Betterment Foundation.

Americans supported the  sterilization of “unfit” people, and in 1907, Indiana became the first state to enact a sterilization law. By 1941, over 60,000 people (mostly women) had been sterilized, some against their will. Eugenics fell out of favor as science began to show that many of the undesirable traits eugenicists studied weren’t inherited at all. Hitler’s eugenics programs horrified Americans when they came to light, and the American eugenics movement fell from favor.

Average Family Winner, Fitter Family Contest in Eastern States Exposition, courtesy American Philosophical Society

Average Family Winner, Fitter Family Contest in Eastern States Exposition, courtesy American Philosophical Society

Eugenics Exhibit

Eugenics Exhibit

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Cherokee State Hospital for the Insane

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Cherokee State Hospital for the Insane

Cherokee State Hospital for the Insane

The Cherokee State Hospital for the Insane in Cherokee, Iowa was not founded by, or for, Indians. However, like the Canton Asylum for Insane Indians, it was a deeply desired institution. The towns of  Sheldon, LeMars, Fort Dodge, and Storm Lake in northwestern Iowa lobbied hard to bring the asylum to their area, since it meant jobs and economic growth. Unlike Canton Asylum, this hospital is still in operation,

In 1911, Iowa began to pass sterilization laws to prevent the procreation of undesirable or defective people. Morons, idiots, drunks, epileptics, and moral perverts were all fair targets, and if they were institutionalized, the managing staff made the determination for sterilization. Later, staff recommended candidates for sterilization to the state eugenics board, who made the final decision. By the early 1960s, nearly 2,000 people in Iowa (the majority female) were sterilized under a variety of these laws.

Dr. Walter Freeman, who had perfected the lobotomy technique, enjoyed the fame he received for his work. He was performing a public lobotomy on a patient at the Cherokee State Hospital and stepped back so a reporter could take his picture. As he did this, Freeman’s ice pick-like instrument went too deep into the patient’s brain and killed him.

In 1924, Dr. Freeman directed St. Elizabeths’ labs. He pioneered his transorbital lobotomy procedure there, but the hospital’s superintended would not allow him to use it any wide scale way.

Dr. Freeman Working

Dr. Freeman Working

Feeble-minded Subjects for Sterilization, courtesy Truman State University

Feeble-minded Subjects for Sterilization, courtesy Truman State University

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Livestock Problems at the Canton Asylum

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Hog Cholera Pamphlet

Hog Cholera Pamphlet

Dr. Hummer had one advantage at the Canton Asylum for Insane Indians that his counterpart at St. Elizabeths didn’t: acreage to raise livestock. Hummer walked into his job knowing nothing about agriculture or animal husbandry, but he soon learned the advantages of growing his own supplies.

When Hummer took over the facility in 1908, he had three dairy cows and no bull. He wanted to build up his herd so that it could supply all the facility’s milk. By 1923, he increased his holdings of dairy cattle to 17; he routinely sold or slaughtered extra calves. Hummer continually asked for more grazing land so he could increase his herd.

Hogs were a little easier to manage than cattle, and when his herd of hogs increased sufficiently, Hummer was able to cut his beef consumption in half. In the fall of 1923, however, hog cholera struck. Hummer immediately shipped four healthy hogs to the Sioux Falls market, and braced himself to lose the rest. He typically used 200 pounds of fresh pork each week, so it was a blow to lose his  home-grown supply of meat. Hummer asked for funds to buy 12-15 brood sows the next spring, to start a new herd.

Hog Buyer in the Middle of a Hog Pen, 1921, courtesy Library of Congress

Hog Buyer in the Middle of a Hog Pen, 1921, courtesy Library of Congress

USDA Scientists Examine a Pig

USDA Scientists Examine a Pig

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Saving Money at the Insane Asylum, Part Two

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Army Surplus Tents From the Spanish-American War

Army Surplus Tents From the Spanish-American War

Dr. Hummer did not rely on patient labor alone to hold down his costs at the Canton Asylum for Insane Indians. Like many others in the federal service, he took advantage of government surplus products to stretch his supply dollar. At least in this area, he had an advantage over his fellow asylum  superintendents, since only one other insane asylum (St. Elizabeths) was within the federal system.

Items held by Indian schools, Army posts and the like, sometimes became surplus. The items would be listed and passed along to other federal agencies, who could then pick out any useful items for their own facilities. In March, 1923, Dr. Hummer was able to snag (among other items) 22 pairs of men’s winter drawers, size 44; 60 pairs of men’s winter drawers, size 42; and over 200 undershirts of various sizes.

The pictures here represent the types of items available through the surplus system. Dr. Hummer did pick up 48 surplus Army cots for 30 cents each in August, 1923, though no pictures exist of the supplies he actually used.

Soldiers Packing Cots in Crates, 1917, courtesy Library of Congress

Soldiers Packing Cots in Crates, 1917, courtesy Library of Congress

Soldiers Folding Blankets, 1917, courtesy Library of Congress

Soldiers Folding Blankets, 1917, courtesy Library of Congress

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